AP环境科学全章节知识点总结

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　　AP环境科学全章节知识点总结!快来看看吧。

　　Pollution

　　Dose-response analysis: expose to a toxin at different concentrations

　　High LD50 means low toxicity

　　Poison: LD50 of 50mg or less per kg of body weight

　　ED50: 50% shows negative effect

　　Threshold dose

　　Acute effect

　　Chronic effect

　　Infection: result of a pathogen病菌 invading body

　　Pathogens

　　Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa原生动物, parasitic worms

　　Vector: ticks spread spotted fever

　　Pollutants

　　Primary: CO

　　Secondary: acid rain (SO2+SO3+water vapor), PANs

　　Criteria pollutants

　　CO: binds irreversibly to hemoglobin

　　Pb: smelting

　　O3: good at high

　　NO2: combustion engines -- smog, acid precipitation

　　SO2: combustion of coal, smelting

　　Particulates: soot, sulfate aerosols

　　Indoor pollutants

　　VOC: dry cleaning, carpet, furniture; form O3 and smog

　　Tobacco smoke

　　Radon: lung cancer; emitted by uranium

　　Smog

　　Aided by air inversions (trap pollutants) and fog (hold pollutants)

　　Industrial smog (gray) and photochemical smog (brown)

　　CFC: propellants, fire extinguishers, hairspray -- depletes ozone

　　Montreal Protocol

　　Ozone loss: greatest in spring as Cl breaks down O3 into O2

　　Acid rain

　　Calcium acts as buffer to acid precipitation

　　Clean Air Act: established cap-and-trade program for SO2 in 1990

　　National Ambient Air Quality Standards

　　Catalytic converter: control emissions in cars

　　Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)

　　Anthropogenic greenhouse gas: CO2, CH4, N2O

　　Temperature inversion

　　Hypoxic zone (depletion of O2) caused by eutrophication

　　Judge water quality

　　PH

　　Hardness: concentrations of calcium and magnesium

　　Dissolved oxygen: warm water = less DO

　　Turbidity

　　BOD: rate bacteria absorb O from water

　　Deal w wastewater

　　Sludge processor: tank filled w aerobic bacteria; sludge further processed w anaerobic bacteria -- produces CH4 that can be used as fuel to run the treatment plant; sludge cake used as fertilizer

　　Tertiary treatment: pass secondary treated water thru sand and carbon filters and then chlorination

　　Recycling

　　Primary: same products

　　Secondary: new products

　　Hazardous waste

　　Corrosive

　　Ignitable

　　Reactive

　　Toxic

　　Disposed thru

　　Injection wells, surface impoundments (for liquid waste that evaporates), landfills

　　Transuranic waste: left over from nuclear weapons

　　Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

　　High-level radioactive wastes: bury underground in remote areas

　　Superfund program in Rocky Flats

　　Love Canal: landfill

　　Cap-and-trade policy: economic incentives for limiting emissions

　　Market permits

　　Relationships

　　Law of Conservation of Matter

　　Trace elements (zinc, copper, iron) are required by living things that cycle, along w major elements

　　Water cycle

　　Evaporation: from earth's surface and from living organisms

　　Transpiration: plants

　　Carbon cycle

　　Respiration: animals and plants

　　Photosynthesis

　　Ways to release carbon

　　Burn of fossil fuels

　　Volcano

　　Reservoirs: ocean, earth's rocks, fossil fuels

　　Nitrogen cycle

　　Nitrogen fixation: nitrogen become ammonia/nitrates thru lightning storms or soil bacteria (rhizobium in legumes)

　　Nitrification: soil bacteria converts ammonium (NH4+) into nitrate (NO3)

　　Assimilation: plants absorb NH3, NH4+, NO3-. Heterotrophs (organisms receive energy by consuming other organisms) obtain nitrogen

　　Ammonification: decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms to NH3 or NH4+ that can be reused

　　Denitrification: ammonia converted to nitrites and nitrates and to N2/N2O that rise to atmosphere

　　Phosphorus cycle

　　Found in soil, rock, sediments; released thru chemical weathering in the form of phosphate; limiting factor for plant growth

　　Sulfur

　　Need in plants' and animals' diets

　　In rocks and sands and deep in the ocean

　　Ways to enter atmosphere

　　Volcano, bacterial functions, decay of once-living organisms

　　Industrial: SO2 and H2S gases

　　Autotrophs/ heterotrophs

　　Producers

　　Chemotrophs: chemosynthesis -- make food from inorganic chemicals in anaerobic environments

　　Net Primary Productivity (NPP) -- amount of energy plants pass to herbivores, calculated by [Gross Primary Productivity (amount of sugar plants produce in photosynthesis) - amount of energy plants need for growth..]

　　NPP: limiting factor for the number of consumers

　　Consumers

　　Primary

　　Secondary

　　Tertiary

　　Detritivores: consume nonliving organic matter such as dead animals/ fallen leaves

　　Decomposers: bacteria and fungi absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter as plant, wastes of living organisms, and corpses

　　Biomagnification: increasing concentration of toxin at higher trophic levels

　　Ecosystems

　　Biomes

　　Ecotones: transitional area where two ecosystems meet

　　Ecozones/ ecoregions: smaller regions that share similar physical features

　　Aquatic life zones

　　Freshwater

　　Saltwater

　　Law of Tolerance

　　Law of the Minimum: living organisms will continue to live until the supply of materials is exhausted

　　Phylogenetic tree to model evolution

　　Speciation

　　How evolution works

　　Natural selection

　　Genetic drift: accumulation of changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) due to sampling errors

　　Microevolution

　　Macroevolution

　　Extinction

　　Biological

　　Ecological: so few that cannot perform ecological function

　　Commercial/ economic

　　Competition

　　Intraspecific: same species compete

　　Interspecific: different species compete

　　Gause's principle: no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time, one has to…

　　Realized niche

　　Fundamental niche -- no competition

　　Predation

　　Symbiotic relationships

　　Mutualistic: sea anemone and clown fish

　　Commensalistc: trees and epiphytes

　　Parasitism: one is harmed the other benefits

　　Ecological succession

　　Primary

　　Secondary

　　Climax community -- balance b/t abiotic and biotic

　　Pioneer species: lichen

　　Edge effect: greater species diversity and biological density at boundaries

　　Theory of Island Biogeography: number of species on "island" is determined by immigration and extinction

　　Population

　　Population dispersion

　　Random

　　Clumping: most common

　　Uniform: e.g. forests

　　Biotic potential -- the amount that population would grow if unlimited resources unpractical!

　　Carrying capacity (K)

　　Exponential (unrestricted) growth -J curve

　　Logistic (restricted) growth -S curve

　　Reproductive strategy

　　R-selected: bacteria, algae, and protozoa; reproduce early and often

　　K-selected: humans, lions, and cows; reproduce late and fewer

　　Population cycles

　　Boom-and-bust

　　Common among r-strategists

　　Predator-prey: rabbits and coyotes

　　Factors influence population growth

　　Density-dependent: increased predation, competition, toxic materials

　　Density-independent: fire, storms, earthquakes

　　Actual growth rate = (birth rate - death rate)/10

　　Birth/death per 1000

　　Total fertility rate: number of children a woman bears during lifetime

　　Replacement birth rate: 2.5 for developing countries

　　Age-structure pyramids/diagrams describe populations

　　Pre-reproductive 0-14

　　Reproductive 15-44

　　Post-reproductive 45+

　　Demographic transition model -- predict population trends based on birth/death rates

　　Pre-industrial state: high birth and death rates; environmental resistance -- harsh living conditions

　　Transitional state: high birth and low death

　　Industrial state: low birth and death; high growth

　　Postindustrial state: zero growth

　　Macronutrients are needed in large amounts: proteins, carbonhydrates, and fats

　　Micronutrients: vitamins, iron, and minerals such as Ca

　　Hunger < malnutrition < undernourished

　　5 mass extinctions

　　Second Harvest in US: redistribute food that would otherwise go to waste

　　Urban sprawl: emigrates from city to suburbs

　　I = P x A x T (Impact, population, affluence, technology)

　　Threatened < endangered

　　Biodiversity hotspot: a highly diverse region that faces threats and has lost 70% of vegetation

　　Laws

　　Marine mammal protection act

　　Endangered species act

　　Convention on international trade …

　　Energy

　　Potential energy

　　Kinetic energy

　　Radiant energy/sunlight

　　Net energy yield: the cost of extraction, processing, and transportation and the amount of useful energy

　　First law of thermodynamics: energy can only be transformed/transferred. E.g. photosynthesis

　　Second law of thermodynamics: increasing entropy --> energy is lost to universe as heat

　　Ways to produce electricity

　　Fossil fuels 64%

　　How fossil fuels produce electricity:

　　Burning fuel

　　Water heated to steam

　　Steam pushes turbine blades

　　Spinning turbines rotate coils thru magnetic fields in generators

　　Current induced as coils spin, producing electrical energy

　　Coal found in seams (long continuous deposits)

　　Largest coal reserve: in US

　　Exploratory wells; proven reserve

　　Oil extraction: take advantage of the differences in boiling points

　　Primary: release of oil and gas -- gusher

　　Pressure: uses mud, saltwater, and CO2

　　Uses steam, hot water/gases to melt very thick crude oil

　　Oil can also be found in rock (shale oil) and surface sands (tar sands)

　　Coal

　　Anthracite: pure carbon

　　Bituminous

　　Subbitumimous

　　Lignite: the least pure

　　CO2, NO…, Hg, SO2

　　Can be removed by Scrubbers: alkaline substances that precipitate out SO2; the neutral compound formed in the scrubber (calcium sulfate) is eliminated in waste sludge

　　Fly ash and boiler residue

　　Iron sulfide can be removed by grinding coal into small lumps and washing

　　Organic sulfur is only released during combustion

　　Burn coal w limestone -- w Ca in limestone form calcium sulfate

　　Smoke-stack scrubbing

　　Wet scrubbing: transform SOX to water pollution issue/ commercial product (sulfuric acid)

　　Baghouse/cyclo scrubbing: like vacuum cleaners

　　Electrostatic filters: use electric charge to attract dust particulates to metal surfaces

　　Coal gasification can be used to remove NOX, SOX, and particulates

　　Natural gas

　　Largest source: wetlands; second largest: livestock

　　Explosions, difficult to transport, pipes, energy input for liquefying

　　Nuclear energy 17%

　　Nonrenewable

　　Uranium-238; uranium 235 splits thru fission

　　Breeder reactors generate new fissionable materials faster than they consume such material

　　Nuclear fusion: fusing tritium-2 neutrons and deuterium-1 neutron

　　Nuclear reactors in US

　　Boiling water reactor: two water circulation systems

　　Pressurized water reactor: three…

　　Renewable energy sources 19%

　　Biomass: wood, charcoal, animal wastes

　　Gasohol: 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol; has higher octane; expensive and energy-intensive to produce

　　Hydroelectric power: thermal pollution; dams; sediments trapped; more evaporation and water loss

　　Solar energy

　　Passive collection

　　Active collection

　　PV cells: produced using fossil fuels

　　Wind energy: fastest growing

　　Nacelle: base of windmill

　　Geothermal energy: dissolved salt corrode machine; gases such as methane, CO2, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia are released

　　Ocean tides

　　Hydrogen cells: cleanest, safest

　　Obtained from fossil fuels by reforming

　　Hydrogen released thru electrolysis (from H2O): may use fossil fuel

　　Hydrogen obtained from organic molecules: may use fossil fuel

　　Only waste is water vapor

　　Laws not ratified by US

　　Basel Convention on the Control of the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

　　Kyoto Protocol: cut greenhouse gas emissions

　　Resource Utilization

　　Traditional agriculture

　　Traditional subsistence agriculture: enough food for one family's survival

　　Slash and burn --> deforestation

　　Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA): to approve pesticides

　　Integrated pest management: keep pest population to economically viable level

　　Introduce natural insect predators, intercropping, mulch to control weeds, diversify crops, crop rotation, release pheromone/hormone interrupters, use traps, construct barriers

　　Genetically engineered plants

　　Golden rice contains vitamin A and iron

　　Rice, wheat, corn

　　Genetic engineering: divert more photosynthetic products (phytosynthate) to grain biomass rather than plant body biomass

　　Plantation farming: tropical developing countries; a type of industrialized agriculture; a monoculture cash crop exported to developed nations

　　Old growth forest: never been cut or disturbed for hundreds of yrs; incredible biodiversity

　　Second growth forest

　　95% of forests are naturally occurring; the rest are plantations/tree farms -- same age; for commercial

　　Silviculture: forest for harvesting timber

　　Clear-cutting: fast-growing plants (pine)

　　Uneven-aged management

　　Selective cutting: for trees that take longer to grow/ interested in specific types

　　Shelter-wood cutting: mature trees cut over 10-20 yrs; leaves some mature trees to reseed

　　Laws

　　Wilderness Act: road-free areas

　　Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

　　Forest fires

　　Surface fires: protect forests from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials

　　Crown fires: huge threat; spread quickly and high temperature

　　Ground fires: in bogs/swamps; originating from surface fires; difficult to detect and extinguish

　　Ocean resources

　　12-mile limit from shore --> 200-mile from shore

　　Endangered aquatic ecosystems

　　Coral reefs: small animals (cnidarians) interact w algae (zooxanthellae)

　　Mangrove swamp: threatened by shrimp aquaculture and degradation of Western coastlines

　　Ore: a rock/mineral from which a valuable substance is extracted at a profit

　　Coal-mining: deposition of iron pyrite and sulfur --> acid mine drainage

　　Extracting gold: cyanide

　　Gangue: waste material; Tailings: piles of gangues

　　Strip mining

　　Strip overburden to expose a seam of mineral ore; practical when ore is close to the surface -- used for coal-mining

　　Least expensive/dangerous but large impact on environment

　　Mountaintop removal: transforms summits and destroys ecosystems

　　Shaft mining: vertical tunnels

　　Mine waste used for: concrete for buildings, fill for road grading

　　Earth

　　Earth

　　Core

　　Solid inner (nickel and iron, solid due to pressures)

　　Molten outer (iron and sulfur, semi-solid due to lower-pressure)

　　Mantle - solid rock

　　Asthenosphere: slowly flowing rock

　　Lithosphere

　　Rigid upper mantle

　　Crust

　　Tectonic plates

　　Consists only of ocean floor: Nazca plate

　　Contain both continental and oceanic: NA plate

　　Pacific plate is the largest plate

　　Plate boundaries

　　Convergent: two plates pushed toward each other; one of them pushed deep into the mantle

　　Divergent: move away from each other--> gap filled with magma(molten rock), new crust formed when it cools

　　Transform fault: slide from side to side

　　Soil

　　Abiotic/biotic

　　Clay < silt < sand

　　Acidity

　　most 4--8 (solubility of nutrients)

　　More acidic --> Hg and Al can leach into ground water (Al damages the gills of fish and causes suffocation

　　Formation

　　Physical/mechanical weathering: by wind and water

　　Chemical weathering: interactions bt/ water and gases, and the bedrock. E.g. rust formed by iron/metal interacting w water

　　Biological weathering: e.g. tree roots growing/expanding thru rocks

　　Layers

　　O: organic; Humus formed by decomposition of organic material

　　A: topsoil; plant growth; zone of leaching

　　B: zone of illuviation (dissolved material moves from higher soil to lower soil due to gravity of water)

　　C: larger rock; not much weathering

　　R: bedrock

　　Loamy: same amount of three textures; best for plant growth

　　Most fertile soil are aggregates

　　Monoculture: can be prevented by crop rotation

　　Green Revolution

　　Salinization in over-irrigated soil

　　Land degradation: prevented by drip irrigation

　　Laws

　　Soil and water conservation act

　　Food security act: prevented conversion of wetlands to nonwetlands

　　Atmosphere

　　Troposphere: majority of water vapor and clouds; greenhouse gas

　　Tropopause: temperature increases w altitude

　　Stratosphere: ozone

　　Mesosphere:

　　Thermosphere/lonosphere: thinnest; aurora; ionization; reflects radio waves

　　Earth evenly heated b/c

　　Motion of air as the result of solar heating

　　Rotation of earth

　　Properties of air, water, and land

　　Prevailing winds: winds moving north are deflected to right/east -- Coriolis effect

　　Dew point: water vapor condenses to liquid -- clouds, precipitation

　　Winds

　　Trade winds

　　Quickly propel trade ships

　　Northeast trade winds (blow from NE)

　　Southeast trade winds

　　Westerly -- result of Coriolis effect

　　Ferrel cell (reverse of Hadley cell) accounts for westerlies

　　Polar westerlies (60 degrees)

　　Horse latitudes (30-35 degrees)

　　Dry air & high pressure --> weak winds

　　Doldrum (5 degrees)

　　Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ): heaviest precipitation

　　Jet stream: high-speed in upper troposphere

　　Monsoon w heavy rainfall: land heats/cools more quickly than water

　　Rain shadow effect: Olympic rainforest on the Washington State coast

　　Windward: moisture

　　Leeward: dry

　　Hurricanes contains more energy than nuclear explosion

　　Hurricanes in Atlantic

　　Typhoons/cyclones in Pacific

　　El Nino

　　Southern oscillation

　　Fish population declines

　　El nina -- Corilolis effect

　　ENSO events -- nino & nina

　　Hydrosphere

　　Freshest sea water: Gulf of Finland, part of Baltic Sea

　　Most saline: Red Sea

　　Freshwater

　　Lake Baikal: 20% of world's freshwater

　　Delta: deposited sediments

　　Estuaries

　　Salt water marshes, mangrove forests, inlets, bays, and river mouths

　　Wetlands: marshes, swamps, bogs, prairie potholes, and flood plains

　　Defining characteristics: soil type, hydrology, species composition

　　Epilimnion, thermoscline, hypolimnion

　　Littoral (rooted, emergent plants), limnetic, profundal (aphotic -- light cannot reach), benthic

　　Barrier islands as buffer

　　Ocean

　　Coastal

　　Euphotic

　　Bathyal

　　Abyssal

　　Upwelling provides nutrients --> toxic algal bloom (red tide - caused by proliferation of dinoflagellates)

　　Interbasin transfer to deal w water shortages

　　Groundwater -- water from wells or aquifers

　　Unconfined aquifer

　　Confined aquifer

　　Water-stressed/water-scarce

　　US: not water-scarce; certain regions are water-stressed

　　Irrigation > thermoelectric power > public supply > …

　　Riparian河边 right

　　Prior appropriation

　　Largest area of old-growth forest in US is in Alaska

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